Human muscle system

The major muscular changes directly associated with the shift to bipedal locomotion are seen in the lower limb. The obvious skeletal changes are in the length of the hind limb, the development of the heel, and the change in the shape of the knee joint so that its surface is flat and not evenly rounded. The hind limbs of apes are relatively short for their body size compared with modern human proportions.

The changes that occurred in the bones of the pelvis are not all directly related to the shift in locomotion, but they are a consequence of it. Bipedality, by freeing the hands from primary involvement with support and locomotion, enabled the development of manual dexterity and thus the manufacture and use of tools, which has been linked to the development in human ancestors of language and other intellectual capacities. The result is a substantially enlarged brain. Large brains clearly affect the form of the skull and thus the musculature of the head and neck. A larger brain also has a direct effect on the pelvis because of the need for a wide pelvic inlet and outlet for the birth of relatively large-brained young. A larger pelvic cavity means that the hip joints have to be farther apart. Consequently, the hip joints are subjected to considerable forces when weight is taken on one leg, as it has to be in walking and running.

To counteract that, the muscles (gluteus minimus and gluteus medius) that are used by the chimpanzee to push the leg back (hip extensors) have shifted in modern humans in relation to the hip joint so that they now act as abductors to balance the trunk on the weight-bearing leg during walking. Part of a third climbing muscle (gluteus maximus) also assists in abduction as well as in maintaining the knee in extension during weight bearing. The gluteal muscles are also responsible for much of the rotation of the hip that has to accompany walking. When the right leg is swung forward and the right foot touches the ground, the hip joint of the same side externally rotates, whereas that of the opposite side undergoes a similar amount of internal rotation. Both of those movements are made possible by rearrangements of the muscles crossing the hip.

The bones of the trunk and the lower limb are so arranged in modern humans that standing upright requires a minimum of muscle activity. Some muscles, however, are essential to maintaining balance, and the extensors of the knee have been rearranged and realigned, as have the muscles of the calf.

The foot is often but erroneously considered to be a poor relation of the hand. Although the toes in modern humans are normally incapable of useful independent movement, the flexor muscles of the big toe are developed to provide the final push off in the walking cycle. Muscles of all three compartments of the modern human lower leg contribute to making the foot a stable platform, which nonetheless can adapt to walking over rough and sloping ground.